Iran is bypassing the US naval blockade by using the Jask port on the Gulf of Oman, sustaining oil exports to China at 985,000 barrels per day with Vortexa data showing 10.7mn barrels of crude transited through the strait between April 13 and 22.

Aging industrial infrastructure remains a major challenge, while car use has increased rapidly as populations become more affluent.

Desertification is accelerating across the region, with 9 sqm of land turning into desert every minute.

Central Asia is among the regions most exposed to climate change, with accelerated glacier melt altering river flows and more frequent droughts disrupting hydropower generation.